Josephus and preterism

Josephus, the Heavenly Armies, and the Second Coming: Did Jesus Return in AD 70?

One of the more intriguing arguments put forward by full preterists is that the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus recorded the fulfilment of Jesus’ Second Coming shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70.

The passage often cited comes from The Jewish War, where Josephus describes an extraordinary phenomenon seen in the skies over Judea:

“Besides these, a few days after that feast, on the one and twentieth day of the month Artemisius, a certain prodigious and incredible phenomenon appeared… before sunset, chariots and troops of soldiers in their armour were seen running about among the clouds, and surrounding of cities.”

At first glance, this appears remarkable. The New Testament speaks of Christ coming with His angels and heavenly hosts, and Josephus records heavenly armies appearing in the clouds shortly before Jerusalem fell. To many, the connection seems obvious.

But is it?

A closer examination reveals that Josephus’ account presents a significant problem for identifying this event as the Second Coming of Christ.

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Josephus’ Account in Context

The first point that should be noted is that Josephus never identifies this phenomenon as the return of Jesus.

In fact, Jesus is not mentioned at all.

Instead, Josephus includes this event among a catalogue of supernatural portents that he believed warned of Jerusalem’s impending destruction. In the same section he records several other extraordinary signs:

• A star resembling a sword standing over Jerusalem.
• A comet visible for a prolonged period.
• The eastern gate of the Temple opening by itself.
• A cow giving birth to a lamb within the Temple precincts.
• Voices heard in the Temple saying, “Let us depart hence.”

Josephus clearly understood these as divine warnings that God was about to bring judgment upon the city. His interpretation is entirely consistent with his broader narrative throughout The Jewish War: God had abandoned the Temple, and Jerusalem was about to suffer catastrophic judgment.

At no point does Josephus suggest that he—or anyone else—had witnessed the return of the Messiah.

This silence is particularly striking when one remembers that Josephus was writing after the destruction of Jerusalem had already occurred. If he believed the extraordinary signs he recorded represented the fulfilment of a messianic expectation, this would have been the natural place to explain it. Instead, he consistently interprets these phenomena as divine portents warning of the city’s impending destruction. His concern is the judgment of Jerusalem, not the appearance of the Messiah.

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The Timing Is Significant

Another important detail is when Josephus says this vision occurred.

He writes that the heavenly armies were seen before the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. The vision is therefore presented as one of several divine portents announcing that judgment was imminent, not as a description of the completed destruction itself.

The armies themselves do not execute the judgment. Josephus does not describe them descending from heaven, attacking Jerusalem, destroying the Temple, or fighting against the Romans. They are simply observed in the sky before the destruction begins. The actual destruction is carried out by Titus and the Roman armies. Thus, Josephus presents the heavenly vision as a sign of impending judgment rather than as the judgment itself.

This is entirely consistent with the other signs Josephus records. The star resembling a sword, the miraculous opening of the Temple gate, the voices heard within the Temple, and the appearance of the heavenly armies all function as warnings that catastrophe is about to fall upon the city. They precede the event they signify.

This chronological detail presents a difficulty for the preterist interpretation.

If the appearance of the heavenly armies is identified with the return of Christ, then Christ’s coming would have occurred before the Temple was destroyed, rather than in conjunction with its destruction. Yet the New Testament consistently presents Christ’s coming as the climactic act of divine judgment, not merely a preliminary warning that judgment is about to occur.

Furthermore, this timing places Josephus’ account comfortably within the established biblical pattern of God providing signs before major acts of judgment. Throughout Scripture, God repeatedly gives warnings before executing covenantal judgment. Josephus presents these heavenly armies in exactly the same way—as a portent of what was about to happen.

Rather than serving as evidence that the Parousia had already taken place, the chronology presented by Josephus suggests that the vision functioned as a divine warning of the judgment that was still about to unfold.

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The Old Testament Background

One of the assumptions often made is that heavenly armies appearing in the clouds must refer to Christ’s return.

However, this overlooks an important biblical pattern.

Throughout the Old Testament, heavenly hosts frequently appear in connection with major historical events without those appearances representing the final coming of God.

Joshua Before Jericho

Immediately before the fall of Jericho, Joshua encounters the Captain of the LORD’s host.

“And he said, Nay; but as captain of the host of the LORD am I now come.” (Joshua 5:14)

The heavenly army is associated with the conquest of Jericho, yet no one argues this was God’s final coming.

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Elisha at Dothan

When the Syrian army surrounded Dothan, Elisha prayed that his servant’s eyes would be opened.

“And the LORD opened the eyes of the young man; and he saw: and, behold, the mountain was full of horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha.” (2 Kings 6:17)

Again, heavenly armies appear during a historical crisis.

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Micaiah’s Vision

Before King Ahab’s death, Micaiah describes a vision of heaven:

“I saw the LORD sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing by him.” (1 Kings 22:19)

This heavenly host accompanies God’s judgment upon Ahab.

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Habakkuk’s Vision

Habakkuk describes the LORD coming in majestic judgment imagery involving clouds, chariots, horses, pestilence and fire (Habakkuk 3).

Most scholars recognise this as prophetic language describing God’s intervention in history.

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These examples establish an important biblical principle.

The appearance of heavenly hosts regularly accompanies divine acts of judgment within history.

Therefore, Josephus’ report of heavenly armies before Jerusalem’s destruction fits naturally within an already established biblical pattern. It does not, by itself, demonstrate that the Second Coming had occurred.

Significantly, these Old Testament accounts do not always place the visible emphasis upon God Himself. Sometimes the heavenly host alone is seen, functioning as the visible manifestation of God’s presence and activity. This observation makes Josephus’ report entirely consistent with established Old Testament imagery. A heavenly army appearing before Jerusalem’s destruction therefore requires no appeal to the Second Coming. Scripture had already established this imagery centuries earlier.

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What Does the New Testament Say People Will See?

This is where the discussion becomes particularly important.

Every major New Testament passage describing the return of Christ places one figure at the centre of the event.

Jesus Himself.

Consider the language.

Matthew 24:30

“And then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven… and they shall see the Son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.”

Notice what is seen.

Not merely heavenly armies.

Not merely angels.

The Son of Man Himself.

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Acts 1:11

As Jesus ascended into heaven, two angels declared:

“This same Jesus… shall so come in like manner as ye have seen him go into heaven.”

Again, the emphasis is entirely upon Jesus Himself.

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Revelation 1:7

“Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every eye shall see him.”

Once more, the object of sight is Christ.

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2 Thessalonians 1:7

Paul writes:

“…the Lord Jesus shall be revealed from heaven with his mighty angels.”

The angels accompany Him.

They are not the central figure.

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Revelation 19

Perhaps the clearest comparison comes from Revelation 19.

John first sees Christ:

“I saw heaven opened, and behold a white horse…”

Only afterwards does he describe:

“And the armies which were in heaven followed him upon white horses…” (Revelation 19:14)

The heavenly armies are important.

But they are deliberately presented as followers.

Christ is the visible leader.

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Josephus Records Only the Secondary Element

This is where the historical evidence becomes difficult for the preterist position.

Josephus reports:

• heavenly armies;
• soldiers;
• chariots;
• movement among the clouds.

But he never reports:

• Jesus;
• the Son of Man;
• the Messiah;
• a heavenly King;
• a rider leading the armies.

The very person whom the New Testament repeatedly says people will see is entirely absent from the account.

This is not a minor omission.

It is the central issue.

The burden of proof therefore rests with those who claim Josephus witnessed the Parousia. The question is not whether Christ comes with heavenly armies—Scripture plainly teaches that He does. The question is why the only alleged eyewitness records the accompanying host but never the King Himself.

One might compare it to a royal procession. Suppose eyewitnesses reported seeing the King’s guards, cavalry and banners entering a city. Would that alone prove the King had arrived? Not necessarily. The guards derive their significance from the King they accompany. Without anyone actually reporting the King’s appearance, the central claim remains unproven.

Likewise, the appearance of heavenly armies does not automatically establish that Christ Himself had visibly returned.

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A Better Explanation

Josephus’ account is actually well explained without appealing to the Second Coming.

Throughout Scripture, heavenly hosts frequently appear in connection with moments of divine judgment.

Jerusalem’s destruction in AD 70 was undoubtedly one of the greatest covenantal judgments recorded in biblical history.

If God permitted extraordinary heavenly signs before that event, Josephus’ description fits comfortably within the established biblical pattern.

The heavenly armies would therefore function as divine portents announcing God’s judgment upon Jerusalem—not necessarily as evidence that the final Parousia had occurred.

The Wider Historical Tradition

Josephus is not the only ancient writer to record extraordinary signs before the destruction of Jerusalem. Several later historians and chroniclers also preserve accounts of heavenly armies, chariots, or supernatural figures appearing in the sky.

Some have suggested that these independent witnesses strengthen the case that Christ returned in AD 70.

However, when the sources are examined carefully, they present a rather different picture.

Far from identifying the phenomenon as the return of Jesus, they consistently describe heavenly signs accompanying Jerusalem’s judgment. In fact, the earliest sources provide no more evidence for Christ’s visible return than Josephus himself.

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Tacitus

The Roman historian Tacitus records similar events in his Histories:

“In the sky appeared a vision of armies in conflict, of glittering armour. A sudden lightning flash from the clouds lit up the Temple. The doors of the holy place abruptly opened, a superhuman voice was heard to declare that the gods were leaving it, and in the same instant came the rushing tumult of their departure…” (Histories 5.13)

This passage is frequently cited because it confirms that reports of heavenly armies were not confined to Jewish sources.

Yet Tacitus actually presents difficulties for the preterist interpretation.

First, Tacitus was neither a Jew nor a Christian. He was writing as a Roman historian and interpreted the event through a Roman religious framework.

Secondly, he speaks not of Christ, nor even of Israel’s God, but of “the gods” departing the Temple.

This alone demonstrates that Tacitus was not describing what he believed to be the return of Jesus.

Instead, like Josephus, he records extraordinary portents preceding Jerusalem’s destruction.

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Pseudo-Hegesippus

Pseudo-Hegesippus, writing centuries later, expands the account:

“After many days a certain figure appeared of tremendous size, which many saw, just as the books of the Jews have disclosed, and before the setting of the sun there were suddenly seen in the clouds chariots and armed battle arrays, by which the cities of all Judaea and its territories were invaded.”

Here, for the first time, we encounter an additional detail:

“a certain figure appeared of tremendous size.”

Some have immediately assumed this must refer to Christ.

Yet the text never says this.

No name is given.

No identification is made.

No connection is drawn with Jesus.

Indeed, Pseudo-Hegesippus appeals to “the books of the Jews.”

This expression almost certainly refers to the Hebrew Scriptures rather than the New Testament.

Therefore the natural comparison is not Matthew 24.

The natural comparison is:

• Daniel
• Ezekiel
• Zechariah
• Joshua
• Habakkuk

All of which already contain giant heavenly figures, heavenly hosts and divine judgment imagery.

That observation is significant because the Hebrew Scriptures already contain numerous examples of gigantic heavenly figures, divine messengers, heavenly armies, and supernatural manifestations accompanying divine judgment.

Daniel sees glorious heavenly beings.

Ezekiel beholds majestic visions.

Joshua encounters the Captain of the LORD’s host.

Elisha’s servant sees horses and chariots of fire.

Nothing in Pseudo-Hegesippus requires us to conclude that the “tremendous figure” was Jesus.

The description fits comfortably within the established imagery of the Old Testament.

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Eusebius

Eusebius records the same phenomenon:

“For before the setting of the sun chariots and armed troops were seen throughout the whole region in mid-air, wheeling through the clouds and encircling the cities.” (Ecclesiastical History 3.8)

Notice what Eusebius does not add.

He never identifies the armies as Christ.

He never claims this was the fulfilment of the Second Coming.

He simply reproduces the tradition already preserved by Josephus.

This silence is particularly striking because Eusebius was a Christian bishop writing in the fourth century.

This is one of the strongest pieces of evidence against the preterist reading. Eusebius was not merely a historian but one of the most influential Christian theologians of the fourth century. If he believed Josephus had preserved historical evidence of Christ’s Second Coming, there is little reason to think he would have omitted such an extraordinary conclusion. Instead, he simply repeats Josephus’ account as one of the signs preceding Jerusalem’s destruction while continuing elsewhere to speak of Christ’s future return. His silence is therefore highly significant.

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Sepher Yosippon

The medieval Jewish work Sepher Yosippon similarly preserves the tradition:

“Moreover, in those days were seen chariots of fire and horsemen, a great force flying across the sky near to the ground coming against Jerusalem and all the land of Judah, all of them horses of fire and riders of fire.”

Again, the imagery is unmistakably that of heavenly armies.

Again, there is no mention of Jesus.

No Messiah appears.

No Son of Man is identified.

No visible Christ is described.

The account simply continues the tradition that supernatural heavenly forces were seen before Jerusalem’s destruction.

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What Do These Sources Actually Demonstrate?

When these historical witnesses are considered together, several important observations emerge.

First, every source agrees that extraordinary heavenly phenomena were reportedly seen before Jerusalem fell.

Secondly, none of the early witnesses identify these phenomena as the visible return of Jesus Christ.

Thirdly, the tradition develops over time.

Josephus, our earliest source, simply records heavenly armies.

Tacitus independently confirms reports of heavenly armies but interprets them through Roman paganism.

Eusebius largely repeats Josephus.

Only in later writings do additional details—such as a gigantic figure—begin to appear.

Yet even these later expansions never explicitly identify that figure as Jesus.

This is precisely the opposite of what we might expect if these accounts were preserving eyewitness testimony of Christ’s return.

Instead of increasingly explicit testimony about seeing Jesus, we find a tradition that gradually acquires additional legendary or interpretive detail while still failing to identify Christ Himself.

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Divine Judgment Rather Than the Parousia

Taken together, these historical sources actually support a different conclusion.

They consistently portray supernatural signs accompanying one of the greatest judgments in Israel’s history.

That should not surprise us.

The Old Testament repeatedly associates divine judgment with heavenly hosts, fiery chariots, angelic armies, majestic heavenly figures, clouds, and supernatural manifestations.

Jerusalem’s destruction in AD 70 would naturally fit within that established biblical pattern.

What these sources do not provide is historical evidence that the visible return of Jesus had already taken place.

The heavenly armies are seen.

The portents are witnessed.

The judgment is anticipated.

But the central figure of every New Testament Parousia passage—the Lord Jesus Christ Himself—is never identified.

That silence remains the greatest difficulty for interpreting these accounts as the fulfilment of the Second Coming.

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Conclusion

The reports of heavenly armies appearing before the destruction of Jerusalem are undoubtedly among the most fascinating historical accounts surrounding AD 70. Josephus, Tacitus, Eusebius, Pseudo-Hegesippus, and Sepher Yosippon all preserve traditions of extraordinary supernatural phenomena associated with Jerusalem’s final days.

Taken together, these sources provide compelling historical evidence that many people believed remarkable signs accompanied God’s judgment upon the city.

What they do not provide is compelling historical evidence that Jesus Christ visibly returned.

This distinction is crucial.

The New Testament consistently presents Christ as the central figure of the Parousia. Jesus declared that people would “see the Son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory” (Matthew 24:30). The angels proclaimed that “this same Jesus” would return as the disciples had seen Him depart (Acts 1:11). John declared that “every eye shall see him” (Revelation 1:7). Paul wrote that “the Lord Jesus shall be revealed from heaven with his mighty angels” (2 Thessalonians 1:7). Even in Revelation 19, where heavenly armies accompany Christ, the armies remain secondary to the visible appearance of their King.

Yet when we turn to the historical witnesses, we find a strikingly different emphasis.

Josephus records armies.

Tacitus records armies.

Eusebius records armies.

Pseudo-Hegesippus records armies—and later adds a tremendous figure, but never identifies that figure as Jesus.

Sepher Yosippon records fiery horsemen.

None of them explicitly state that Jesus Christ was seen.

The one figure whom the New Testament repeatedly identifies as the visible focus of the event is absent from every historical account.

Equally significant is the chronology of these reports. The heavenly armies are consistently seen before Jerusalem and the Temple are destroyed. They function as warnings and divine portents announcing the judgment that is about to fall, just as countless signs and prophetic warnings preceded other acts of divine judgment throughout the Old Testament. The destruction itself is then carried out by the Roman armies under Titus, not by the heavenly hosts seen in the clouds.

Nor should the appearance of heavenly armies surprise us. The Hebrew Scriptures repeatedly associate divine judgment with heavenly hosts, fiery chariots, majestic heavenly figures, and angelic armies. Joshua encountered the Captain of the LORD’s host before Jericho fell. Elisha’s servant saw horses and chariots of fire surrounding Dothan. Micaiah saw the heavenly host before Ahab’s judgment. Habakkuk described God advancing in majestic judgment imagery. Against this established biblical background, supernatural armies appearing before Jerusalem’s destruction fit naturally within the language and imagery of covenantal judgment.

Finally, the development of the historical tradition deserves careful consideration. Our earliest witness, Josephus, simply records heavenly armies. Tacitus independently confirms similar reports while interpreting them through Roman religious thought. Eusebius largely repeats Josephus. Only later do additional details—such as a tremendous figure—begin to appear, yet even these later sources never identify that figure as Christ. Rather than providing increasingly explicit testimony to the visible return of Jesus, the tradition grows in descriptive detail while remaining silent about the very person the New Testament says would be seen.

None of this proves that the reported phenomena were merely natural events, nor does it deny that God may have given extraordinary signs before Jerusalem’s destruction. On the contrary, these historical accounts may well preserve genuine reports of remarkable divine portents accompanying one of the greatest covenantal judgments in biblical history.

However, the historical evidence should not be asked to say more than it actually does.

The sources consistently testify to supernatural signs.

They consistently testify to heavenly armies.

They consistently testify to impending divine judgment.

They do not consistently testify to the visible appearance of Jesus Christ.

Ultimately, the burden of proof rests upon those who claim that these accounts record the fulfilment of the Second Coming. If Christ truly returned in AD 70, one simple historical question remains:

Why do none of the ancient witnesses who describe these extraordinary events ever state that they saw Jesus?

Until that question can be satisfactorily answered, these remarkable historical accounts are better understood as evidence of extraordinary heavenly portents accompanying the judgment upon Jerusalem than as eyewitness testimony to the visible return of the Lord Jesus Christ.

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